Pennsylvania Journal

April 24

Carl Robert Keyes Daily Advert Update , , , , , ,

What was advertised in a revolutionary American newspaper 250 years ago today?

Pennsylvania Journal (April 24, 1776).

“A NEW AMERICAN MANUFACTORY.”

In the spring of 1776, Edward Ryves, a “PAPER STAINER, advertised that he “MANUFTURES and sells all kinds of paper hangings” or wallpaper “at his factory in Pine-street, Philadelphia.”  It was not the first time that Ryves placed such an advertisement.  The previous summer, the partnership of Ryves and Fletcher ran a similar advertisement, one that also proclaimed, “A NEW AMERICAN MANUFACTORY,” in its headline.  Ryves and Fletcher apparently parted ways, but the former retained their marketing strategy and updated it accordingly.  An advertisement that previously stated, “they are the first who have attempted that manufacture on this continent,” now asserted that “he is the first and only one who has attempted such manufacture on the Continent.”  Now that he was on his own, Ryves reserved that accolade exclusively for himself.

He also reiterated appeals intended to enlist consumers who supported the American cause: “he is induced to hope for the countenance and protection of all well wishers of the infant manufactures of America.”  Ryves then expanded on the appeal that he and Fletcher made, stating that “most especially at this time,” a year after a war began at Lexington and Concord, “that the assistance to, and promotion of every kinds of manufacture, must be the most essential service that the inhabitants of this place can render it.”  The paper stainer suggested that buying goods produced in the colonies gave every consumer an opportunity to support the American cause.  Military service was not an option for every colonizer, but every colonizer was a consumer who made decisions about which goods to purchase.  Throughout the imperial crisis, many colonizers advocated for encouraging “domestic manufactures” as an alternative to importing goods from Great Britain.  The Second Continental Congress codified such calls in the eighth article of the Continental Association: “we will, in our several Stations, encourage Frugality, Economy, and Industry; and promote Agriculture, Arts, and the Manufactures of this Country.”  Ryves banked on prospective customers acting on that provision.

As a bonus, Ryves promoted a new product.  In a nota bene, he announced that he “has manufactured a few playing cards, all of the produce of America, which he will sell reasonable, considering the great price of the materials they are made of.”  Readers not in the market for paper hangings could instead support his business (and, by extension, the “infant manufactures of America’) by purchasing a deck of cards for use in their leisure time.

April 17

Carl Robert Keyes Daily Advert Update , , , , ,

What was advertised in a revolutionary American newspaper 250 years ago today?

Pennsylvania Journal (April 17, 1776).

“Manufactured at BATSTO FURNACE.”

For months, an advertisement for goods “Manufactured at BATSTO FURNACE, In West-New-Jersey,” ran in the Pennsylvania Journal.  The notice advised prospective customers that they could select from among a “GREAT variety of iron pots, kettles, Dutch ovens, and oval fish kettles, either with or without covers, [and] skillets of different sizes” as well as “open and close stoves of different sizes, … pestles and mortars; sash weights, and forge hammers of the best quality.”

According to the public historians at Batsto Village in Hammonton, New Jersey, “Charles Read of Burlington constructed the Iron Furnace at Batsto in 1766.  The furnace produced cannons, munitions and other items to aid the patriots during their struggle with the British.  …  Following the Revolutionary War, the Batsto furnace produc[ed] a variety of items such as pots, kettles, stoves, and fireplace backing.”  Unfortunately, the furnace no longer stands today, though visitors may view an ore pile and a nineteenth-century ore boat.

The advertisements in the Pennsylvania Journal demonstrate that the Batsto Furnace produced an array of consumer goods during the first year of the Revolutionary War.  Read likely responded to calls for “domestic manufactures,” goods produced in the colonies as alternatives to items imported from England, that accompanied nonimportation agreements adopted in response to the Stamp Act in 1765 and 1766, the Townshend Acts in the late 1760s, and the Intolerable Acts in 1774.  The eight article of the Continental Association, a nonimportation, nonconsumption, and nonexportation pact devised by the Second Continental Congress in October 1774 and adopted throughout the colonies, stated, “That we will, in our several Stations, encourage Frugality, Economy, and Industry; and promote Agriculture, Arts, and the Manufactures of this Country.”  The thirteen article address prices: “That all Manufactures of this country to be sold at reasonable Prices, so that no undue Advantage be taken of a future scarcity of Goods.”  Given those provisions, the advertisement for the goods produced at the Batsto Furnace likely resonated with readers.  John Cox, the local agent who sold the pots, kettles, skillets, and other kitchenware in Philadelphia, described them as “much lighter, neater, and superior in quality to any imported from Great-Britain.”  He attempted to assure consumers that they did not need to sacrifice quality when they observed their political principles through buying goods made in the colonies.

April 10

Carl Robert Keyes Daily Advert Update , , , , , ,

What was advertised in a revolutionary American newspaper 250 years ago today?

Pennsylvania Journal (April 10, 1776).

“Printed, published, and now selling, by ROBERT BELL … LARGE ADDITIONS TO COMMON SENSE.”

It was an interesting turn of events in the feud over publishing Thomas Paine’s Common Sense that unfolded in Philadelphia.  On January 9, 1776, Robert Bell announced the publication of what would become the most popular political pamphlet of the era of the American Revolution.  At first, he was the only printer willing to publish such Paine’s radical arguments in favor of independence.  It did not take long for Paine and Bell to part ways over publishing a second edition, reportedly because Bell’s ledgers showed that he did not earn a profit on the first edition.  Paine, who claimed that he wished to donate his share of the proceeds to buy mittens for American soldiers involved in the invasion of Canada, instructed Bell not to publish a second edition.  Instead, he worked with William Bradford and Thomas Bradford, the printers of the Pennsylvania Journal, on a new edition with bonus material.  Bell went ahead with his second edition anyway, pirated the additions that Paine made to the new edition, and released a companion pamphlet, “LARGE ADDITIONS TO COMMON SENSE,” that consisted of essays drawn from newspapers, none of them by Paine.

All of that and even more drama appeared in advertisements in several newspapers published in Philadelphia and even a couple in New York.  Initially, Bell and Paine addressed each other in open letters.  After the author had his say, Bell and the Bradfords exchanged barbs.  Bell ran advertisements for his second edition of Common Sense and related pamphlets in most of the Philadelphia’s newspapers, but not the Pennsylvania Journal.  Either he refused to give the Bradfords the advertising revenue or they refused to accept his advertisements.  Curiously, the Pennsylvania Journal did carry Bell’s advertisement for “LARGE ADDITIONS TO COMMON SENSE” on February 21, but it appeared alongside an advertisement for the Bradfords’ “NEW EDITION OF COMMON SENSE” that concluded with a warning: “The Pamphlet advertised by Robert Bell, entitled Additions to Common Sense, or by any other name he may hereafter call it, consists of pieces taken out of the News-papers, and not written by the author of Common Sense.”  No advertisement for any variations of Common Sense or related material published by Bell ran in the Pennsylvania Journal for seven weeks.  Then, on April 10, the advertisement from February 21 appeared once again, the type apparently still set.  For whatever reason, the Bradfords had not broken it down, suggesting that they thought it possible Bell’s notice might run again.  Richard Gimbel asserts that the “acrimonious quarrel … doubtless helped to make Paine’s Common Sense the most discussed and most widely circulated pamphlet in America.”[1]  Did the Bradfords have that in mind when they made decisions about whether and when to publish Bell’s advertisements for Common Sense and related material in the Pennsylvania Journal?

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[1] Richard Gimbel, Thomas Paine: A Bibliographical Check List of Common Sense with an Account of Its Publication (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956), 49.

March 27

Carl Robert Keyes Daily Advert Update , , ,

What was advertised in a revolutionary American newspaper 250 years ago today?

Pennsylvania Journal (March 27, 1776).

“The above goods are now offered … as low as goods of the same quality have been sold … for two years past.”

As spring arrived in 1776, Peter Stretch advertised an assortment of textiles and accessories available at his store on Walnut Street in Philadelphia.  In a notice in the March 27 edition of the Pennsylvania Journal, he listed many kinds of fabrics, including “SCARLET, brown, drab and mixed superfine broadcloaths and trimmings,” “spotted velvets and thicksetts,” and “best black Paduasoy and white sattin.”  Among the accessories, he stocked “death-head and basket buttons,” “knee garters,” and “buttons worked with pearl and spangle, on the most fashionable colours.”  Stretch’s inventory also included “claret, brown, drab, blue, scarlet, and mixed superfine Bath coatings, as fine as were ever imported into this place.”  He conveniently did not mention when he had received shipment of any of his wares, sidestepping whether they arrived before the Continental Association went into effect on December 1, 1774, though he had on another occasion detailed his compliance with that pact.

In this instance, Stretch did assert that his goods “are now offered to the public as low as goods of the same quality have been sold for in this place for two years past.”  In that regard, he did acknowledge the nonimportation agreement devised by the Second Continental Congress in response to the Coercive Acts that Parliament passed to punish Boston for destroying tea by throwing it into the harbor in December 1773.  The ninth article required that “Venders of Goods or Merchandise will not take Advantage of the Scarcity of Goods that may be occasioned by this Associacion, but will sell the same at the Rates we have been respectively accustomed to do for twelve Months past.”  It also specified that merchants and shopkeepers who did engage in price gouging then “no Person ought, nor will any of us deal with any such Person … at any Time thereafter, for any Commodity whatever.”  Stretch certainly wanted to avoid such consequences!  In stating that his prices matched those charged two years earlier, he assured prospective customers that they were in line with prices from before the Continental Association went into effect.  He did not promise great bargains, but at least his customers did not have to worry that he took advantage of the disruptions to trade caused by the imperial crisis and a war that started the previous April.

March 20

Carl Robert Keyes Daily Advert Update , , , ,

What was advertised in a revolutionary American newspaper 250 years ago today?

Pennsylvania Journal (March 20, 1776).

“A TREATISE of MILITARY DISCIPLINE; CALCULATED FOR THE USE OF THE AMERICANS.”

Eleven months after the Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord, Lewis Nicola distributed subscription proposals for a “TREATISE of MILITARY DISCIPLINE … illustrated by TEN COPPER-PLATES.”  He indicated that the work was “nearly completed, and will be put in the press as soon as a sufficient number of subscribers are obtained.”  Authors and printers often used subscription proposals as a rudimentary form of market research, assessing whether interest merited publishing a book and determining how many copies to print while simultaneously increasing visibility for the project and augmenting demand.  Nicola envisioned a “neat duodecimo volume,” a portable size, but did not affix a price except to say that it “will be fixed as low as possible.”  He expected that other aspects of the manual would convince prospective subscribers to reserve their copies.

For instance, he proclaimed that his manual was “CALCULATED FOR THE USE OF THE AMERICANS.”  Over the past couple of years, especially since the war started, American printers published local editions of a variety of British military manuals, but Nicola’s book, as Douglas R. Cubbison explains, “was one of only two such treatises specifically prepared for the Continental Army at the time.”  Nicola emphasized that he focused on practical matters, including “every thing essential on service” while omitted “those Manoeuvres only for parade and shew.”  Militia training had often been an occasion for socializing and entertainment before the war, but officers and soldiers and the communities they served needed more than fancy formations now that they engaged an enemy rather than gathering on the town common.  Cubbison also notes that Nicola outlined “a unified system of military maneuvers” and stressed that “officers must display forbearance, understanding, and respect for their soldiers.”  In so doing, his manual “anticipated many of the core components of the Baron de Steuben’s more famous and considerably more influential Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States.”

Nicola accepted subscriptions in Philadelphia, as did William Bradford and Thomas Bradford, the printers of the Pennsylvania Journal.  In addition, “Thomas Mifflin, Esq; Quarter-Master General at Cambridge,” also collected subscriptions.  When the subscription proposal appeared in the Pennsylvania Journal on March 20, residents of Philadelphia did not yet know that the British evacuated Boston three days earlier, ending the siege of the city.  The most recent news, printed in both the Pennsylvania Evening Post on March 19 and the Pennsylvania Gazette on March 20, came Watertown on March 11, a description of the “bombardment of Boston” following the arrival of cannon that Henry Knox transported from Fort Ticonderoga in New York.  “‘Tis reported the Regulars are embarking,” the missive from Watertown stated, but the printers had not yet received word that the British had indeed left Boston.  Whatever came next, the war was not coming to an end.  Nicola likely hoped that news from Watertown would entice readers to subscribe for a military manual “CALCULATED FOR THE USE OF THE AMERICANS.”

January 3

Carl Robert Keyes Daily Advert Update , , , , , , ,

What was advertised in a revolutionary American newspaper 250 years ago today?

Pennsylvania Journal (January 3, 1776).

“MARY MEMMINGER, At the sign of the Golden Pelican.”

In the final issue of the Pennsylvania Journal published in 1775 and continuing in January 1776, Mary Memminger advertised the remedies available at her apothecary shop “At the sign of the Golden Pelican” on Second Street in Philadelphia.  Memminger described her shop as a “distillery,” suggesting that she may have produced some of the “WATERS” (including cinnamon, clove, orange, peppermint, and “Common Mint”) and “Spirits of Wine,” “Spirits of Turpentine,” and “Spirits of Lavender.”  She also stocked popular “PATENT MEDICINES, Imported from London,” listing “Bateman’s Drops, British Oil, Turlington’s Balsam, Godfrey’s Cordial, Daffy’s Elixer, [and] Hooper’s and Anderson’s Pills.”  Memminger apparently tended closely to her advertising.  The first time her notice appeared, it featured an error, truncating “Godrey’s Cordial, Daffy’s Elixer” to “Godfrey’s Elixer.”  The compositor fixed the mistake, a rare instance of an updated version of a newspaper advertisement for consumer goods and services after the type had been set.

Memminger did not indicate when she received the patent medicines “Imported from London,” whether they arrived in the colonies before the Continental Association went into effect on December 1, 1774.  Apothecaries and others who sold patent medicines often gave assurances that they were “fresh,” recent arrivals that had not lingered on shelves or in storerooms for months, yet Memminger left it to readers to draw their own conclusions.  She did assert that she was “determined to keep a constant supply of the above articles, all of which I shall be careful to have the best of their kinds,” perhaps indicating a willingness to make exceptions when it came to certain imported items.  Memminger made the health of her clients her priority, promising that “the public may depend on being served on the most reasonable terms, and my friends in the country may depend on being as well supplied by letter as if they were present.”  As a symbol of the care she provided, a woodcut dominated her advertisement (and the entire final page of the January 3, 1776, edition of the Pennsylvania Journal).  As William H. Helfand explains, it depicted “a pelican piercing her breast to nourish her young.”  Perhaps it replicated the “sign of the Golden Pelican” that marked Memminger’s location.  While other apothecaries, like Philip Godfrid Kast and Oliver Smith, deployed images that incorporated mortars and pestles, Memminger declined to include a tool of the trade in favor of emphasizing a symbol of motherly care and sacrifice tending to the welfare of others.

December 6

Carl Robert Keyes Daily Advert Update , , , , ,

What was advertised in a revolutionary American newspaper 250 years ago today?

Pennsylvania Journal (December 6, 1775).

“JOURNAL OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONGRESS, HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, MAY 10, 1775.”

On Wednesday, December 6, 1775, William Bradford and Thomas Bradford, printers of the Pennsylvania Journal, announced that “On FRIDAY Next, WILL BE PUBLISHED … [the] JOURNAL OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONGRESS, HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, MAY 10, 1775.”  The contents of that volume covered the period from May 10 through August 1.  Throughout the colonies, readers had been able to follow news from the Second Continental Congress reprinted from newspaper to newspaper.  Local printers made editorial decisions about which items to include.  With this volume, however, readers gained access to the entire proceedings.  It supplemented the news they previously read or heard.  It also provided a convenient means of collecting the information in a single place, though some colonizers did save newspapers and one, Harbottle Dorr, even created an extensive index to aid him as he reviewed news of the imperial crisis that eventually became a revolution.

The Bradfords announced publication of the Journal of the Proceedings of the Congress in advance in hopes that the anticipation would incite demand.  They gave their advertisement a privileged place in their newspaper, placing it immediately after the news.  The “ARTICLES of CAPITULATION made and entered into between Richard Montgomery, Esq; Brigadier General of the Continental army, and the citizens and inhabitants of Montreal” on November 12 appeared in the column to the left of the Bradfords’ advertisement.  They may have hoped that news of an American victory in the two-pronged invasion of Canada that targeted Montreal and Quebec City would help to sell copies of the Journal of the Proceedings of the Congress.  In addition to publishing the journal documenting the first months of the Second Continental Congress, the Bradfords previously printed and advertised a complete journal of the proceedings of the First Continental Congress held in Philadelphia in September and October 1774.  Nearly as soon as that body adjourned, the Bradfords published and advertised a collection of Extracts that included “a List of Grievances” and the Continental Association, a nonimportation and nonconsumption agreement intended to use commercial leverage to achieve political goals.  Within a month of marketing the Extracts, the Bradfords made the complete journal available to the public.  These publications supplemented and expanded newspaper coverage of the debates and decisions made by delegates meeting in Philadelphia.

November 1

Carl Robert Keyes Daily Advert Update , , , , , , , , , ,

What was advertised in a revolutionary American newspaper 250 years ago today?

Pennsylvania Journal (November 1, 1775).

“A NEAT Mezzotinto print of the Hon. JOHN HANCOCK.”

“A large and exact VIEW of the late BATTLE at CHARLESTOWN.”

“An accurate map of the present seat of CIVIL WAR.”

Nicholas Brooks produced and marketed items that commemorated the American Revolution before the colonies declared independence.  In an advertisement in the November 1, 1775, edition of the Pennsylvania Journal, for instance, he packaged together three prints previously advertised separately, each of them related to imperial crisis that had boiled over into a war.  For this notice, Brooks presented them as a collection of prints for consumers who wished to demonstrate their support for the American cause by purchasing and displaying one or more of them.

Brooks announced that a “NEAT Mezzotinto print of the Hon JOHN HANCOCK, Esquire, President of the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS,” that had previously been proposed in other advertisements had been published and was now for sale at his shop on Second Street in Philadelphia.  The subscribers who had reserved copies in advance could pick up their framed copies or arrange for delivery.  Others who had not placed advanced orders could acquire the print for three shillings and nine pence or pay two extra shillings for one “elegantly coloured.”

“Likewise, may be had at the above place,” Brooks reported, “a large and exact VIEW of the late BATTLE at CHARLESTOWN,” depicting what has become known as the Battle of Bunker Hill.  This print competed with an imitation bearing a similar title, “a neat and correct VIEW of the late BATTLE at CHARLESTOWN,” that Robert Aitken inserted in the Pennsylvania Magazine and sold separately.  Brooks, who had long experience selling framed prints, offered choices for his “exact VIEW.”  Customers could opt for an “elegantly coloured” version for seven shillings and six pence” or have it “put in a double carved and gilt frame, with glass 20 by 16 inches,” for eighteen shillings and six pence.  The eleven shillings for the frame, half again the cost of the print, indicated that Brooks anticipated that customers would display the “exact VIEW” proudly in their homes or offices.

He also promoted “an accurate map of the present seat of CIVIL WAR, taken by an able Draughtsman,” Bernard Romans, “who was on the spot of the late engagement.”  Brooks revised copy from earlier advertisements: “The draught was taken by the most skillful draughtsman in all America, and who was on the spot at the engagements of Lexington and Bunker’s Hill.”  The map showed a portion of New England that included Boston, Salem, Providence, and Worcester.   This print, he declared, was a “new impression, with useful additions,” though he did not specify how it differed from the one he previously marketed and sold.  As with the others, customers had a choice of a plain version for five shillings or a “coloured” one for six shillings and six pence.

Brooks added one more item, “a humorous and instructive print, entitled the COMET of 1774, done by a Gentleman in New-York.”  Did this print offer some sort of satirical commentary on current events?  Or was it unrelated to the prints of Hancock, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the “CIVIL WAR” in New England?  Whatever the additional print depicted, Brooks made the prints that commemorated the American Revolution the focus of his advertisement, gathering together three items previously promoted individually.  In so doing, he not only offered each print to customers as separate purchases but also suggested that they could consider them part of a collection.  Consumers who really wanted to demonstrate their patriotism could easily acquire all three at his shop.

October 18

Carl Robert Keyes Daily Advert Update , , , , , , , ,

What was advertised in a revolutionary American newspaper 250 years ago today?

Pennsylvania Journal (October 18, 1775).

“An Elegy to the memory of the American Volunteers who fell … April 19, 1775.”

During the era of the American Revolution, advertisements for almanacs frequently appeared in newspapers from New England to Georgia each fall.  Such was the case in the Pennsylvania Journal in 1775.  James Adams, a printer in Delaware, inserted a notice that announced that he “JUST PUBLISHED … The WILMINGTON and PENNSYLVANIA ALMANACKS, For the year of our LORD, 1776.”

Adams followed a familiar format for advertising almanacs.  He indicated that both editions included “the usual astronomical calculations” that readers would find in any almanac as well as a variety of other enticing contents.  The Pennsylvania edition included “Pithy Sayings” for entertainment and “Tables of Interest at six and seven per cent” for reference as well as the “Continuation of William Penn’s Advice to his Children” and the “Conclusion of Wisdom’s Call to the young of both sexes.”  Adams published a portion of those pieces in the almanac for the previous year, anticipating that readers would purchase the subsequent edition for access to the essays in their entirety.  The almanac for 1776 also suggested “Substitutes for Tea,” certainly timely considering that the Continental Association remained in effect. Colonizers sought alternatives while they boycotted imported tea.

Current events played an even more prominent role in the Wilmington Almanack.  It featured an “Elegy to the memory of the American Volunteers, who fell in the engagement between the Massachusetts-Bay Militia and the British Troops, April 19, 1775.”  Six months after the battles at Lexington and Concord, Adams memorialized the minutemen who had died for the American cause during the first battles of the Revolutionary War.  In addition, the almanac featured “The Irishman’s Epistle to the Officers and troops at Boston,” “Liberty-Tree,” and “A droll Dialogue between a fisherman of Poole, in England, and a countryman, relative to the trade of America, and proposed victory over the Americans.”  Adams did not elaborate on those items, perhaps intentionally.  Presenting the titles of the pieces without further elaboration was standard practice in advertisements for almanacs, but in this case the printer may have intended to stoke curiosity that would lead to more sales.  For both almanacs, a concern for current events and a burst of patriotism influenced the contents and their marketing.

October 4

Carl Robert Keyes Daily Advert Update , , , , , , ,

What was advertised in a revolutionary American newspaper 250 years ago today?

Pennsylvania Journal (October 4, 1775).

“A NEAT MEZZOTINTO PRINT of the HON. JOHN HANCOKC, ESQ; PRESIDENT of the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS.”

On October 4, 1775, Nicholas Brooks took to the pages of the Pennsylvania Journal to announce that he “JUST PUBLISHED … An Exact VIEW of the Late BATTLE at CHARLESTOWN,” now known as the Battle of Bunker Hill.  Brooks had previously distributed subscription proposals for the project that he pursued in collaboration with Bernard Romans.  Brooks and Romans had recently worked together on a map of Boston that depicted the siege of the city following the battles at Lexington and Concord.  Brooks described the new print now ready for purchase as a “Large Elegant PIECE, beautifully Coloured, and much superior to any pirated copy now offered or offering to the public.” Apparently, Brooks had not worked with Robert Aitken in making a version to accompany the Pennsylvania Magazine.  It was not the first time that one colonizer pirated the work of another when producing items that commemorated the imperial crisis that eventually became a war for independence.  Paul Revere had done the same with Henry Pelham’s image of the Boston Massacre, advertising his copy in Boston’s newspapers before Pelham marketed the original.

Despite his frustration with the situation, Brooks must have considered prints commemorating the people and events related to the current crisis viable business ventures.  Immediately below his advertisement for “An Exact View of the Late BATTLE at CHARLESTOWN,” he inserted another advertisement, that one proclaiming, “It is PROPOSED to PRINT, in about ten days, A NEAT MEZZOTINTO PRINT of the HON. JOHN HANCOCK, ESQ; PRESIDENT of the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS.”  Brooks collected subscribers’ names and reserved copies of the print for them at his shop on Second Street in Philadelphia.  Interested parties could also visit the London Coffee House, a popular spot for socializing, conducting business, and talking politics.  Brooks’s advertisement did not give details about what to do at the London Coffee House.  Subscribers may have given their names to an employee who recorded them on a list or they may have signed their own names (and indicated the number of copies they wished to purchase) on a subscription proposal posted alongside other advertisements.  They very well may have perused the names of other patriots who ordered the print as they committed to acquiring their own copy.  Brooks hoped that they would also purchase “Frames and Glasses” to display the prints from his shop, just as he marketed a “Double Carv’d and Gilt Frame … with Crown Glass” for the print depicting the battle.  Brooks certainly wanted commemorative items to become fashionable items that consumers believed that they not only wanted but needed as the imperial crisis intensified.